TipThePlanet - Recent changes [en]

Harvest rainwater

2010-09-10T11:47:25Z

Groundwater recharge:

ATM Machine

2010-09-10T11:37:47Z

Global use:

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	[[File:ICAs_uttagsautomat_ICA_Metro_Skanstull_Stockholm.jpg\|220 px\|thumbnail\|Smaller indoor ATMs dispense money inside convenience stores and other busy areas, such as this off-premise Wincor Nixdorf mono-function ATM in Sweden.\|right]]		[[File:ICAs_uttagsautomat_ICA_Metro_Skanstull_Stockholm.jpg\|220 px\|thumbnail\|Smaller indoor ATMs dispense money inside convenience stores and other busy areas, such as this off-premise Wincor Nixdorf mono-function ATM in Sweden.\|right]]

-	An automated teller machine (ATM), also known as automatic banking machine (ABM), Cash Machine, or Cashpoint, is a computerised telecommunications device that provides the clients of a financial institution with access to financial transactions in a public space without the need for a cashier, human clerk or bank teller. On most modern ATMs, the customer is identified by inserting a plastic ATM card with a magnetic stripe or a plastic smart card with a chip, that contains a unique card number and some security information such as an expiration date or CVVC (CVV). Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN).	+	An [[ATM_Safety_Tips\|'''automated teller machine (ATM)''']], also known as automatic banking machine (ABM), Cash Machine, or Cashpoint, is a computerised telecommunications device that provides the clients of a financial institution with access to financial transactions in a public space without the need for a cashier, human clerk or bank teller. On most modern ATMs, the customer is identified by inserting a plastic ATM card with a magnetic stripe or a plastic smart card with a chip, that contains a unique card number and some security information such as an expiration date or CVVC (CVV). Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN).

	Using an ATM, customers can access their bank accounts in order to make cash withdrawals, credit card cash advances, and check their account balances as well as purchase prepaid cellphone credit. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that which the bank account is denominated in (e.g.: Withdrawing Japanese Yen from a bank account containing US Dollars), the money will be converted at a wholesale exchange rate. Thus, ATMs often provide the best possible exchange rate for foreign travelers and are heavily used for this purpose as well.		Using an ATM, customers can access their bank accounts in order to make cash withdrawals, credit card cash advances, and check their account balances as well as purchase prepaid cellphone credit. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that which the bank account is denominated in (e.g.: Withdrawing Japanese Yen from a bank account containing US Dollars), the money will be converted at a wholesale exchange rate. Thus, ATMs often provide the best possible exchange rate for foreign travelers and are heavily used for this purpose as well.
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	In addition to methods employed for transaction security and secrecy, all communications traffic between the ATM and the Transaction Processor may also be encrypted via methods such as SSL.		In addition to methods employed for transaction security and secrecy, all communications traffic between the ATM and the Transaction Processor may also be encrypted via methods such as SSL.

-	==Global use==	+	==[[Global_warming\|'''Global''']] use==

	There are no hard international or government-compiled numbers totaling the complete number of ATMs in use worldwide. Estimates developed by ATMIA place the number of ATMs in use currently at over 1.8 million.		There are no hard international or government-compiled numbers totaling the complete number of ATMs in use worldwide. Estimates developed by ATMIA place the number of ATMs in use currently at over 1.8 million.

Sassafras

2010-09-10T11:28:54Z

History:

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	= History =		= History =

-	* Sassafras is one of three species of laurel and the only one that is native to eastern North America (the other two are found in eastern Asia), and it is considered the most important. When the Spanish arrived in Florida in the early sixteenth century, they discovered the fragrant Sassafras tree but mistook it for a cinnamon tree, which has given it one of its common names, Cinnamon Wood. Native Americans added many drugs to our modern pharmacopoeia, including Sassafras, and they used the bark as a general tonic and as a diaphoretic and diuretic or "blood purifier," by urinating or sweating out impurities from the system. They also used it to remedy malaria and skin ~~diseases~~. Word soon spread about the plant's amazing curative powers, reaching Europe, and Sassafras may have been the first American plant drug to reach the Old World, where it was widely used as a medicine, first in Spain in the 1500s, and under cultivation in England before 1633. For a time it became a major colonial export, second only to tobacco. Europeans also created Sassafras tea, which soon became highly fashionable but lost its luster when Sassafras also gained the reputation as a cure for syphilis (unjustified). Early settlers considered the root bark as a virtual cure-all and also fermented the roots with molasses to make beer, and during the Civil War Sassafras tea became a popular beverage. Oil extracted from the bark of the roots (eighty percent of which is safrole) remained in use as an antiseptic for dentistry and as a flavoring for toothpastes, root beer, and chewing gum until the early 1960s, when the FDA banned its use as an additive, as safrole was found to be a carcinogen.	+	* Sassafras is one of three species of laurel and the only one that is native to eastern North America (the other two are found in eastern Asia), and it is considered the most important. When the Spanish arrived in Florida in the early sixteenth century, they discovered the fragrant Sassafras tree but mistook it for a [[cinnamon]] tree, which has given it one of its common names, Cinnamon [[cedar\|Wood]]. Native Americans added many drugs to our modern pharmacopoeia, including Sassafras, and they used the bark as a general tonic and as a diaphoretic and diuretic or "blood purifier," by urinating or sweating out impurities from the system. They also used it to remedy [[malaria]] and skin [[disease]]s. Word soon spread about the plant's amazing curative powers, reaching [[Wind in Europe\|Europe]], and Sassafras may have been the first American plant drug to reach the Old [[earth\|World]], where it was widely used as a medicine, first in Spain in the 1500s, and under cultivation in England before 1633. For a time it became a major colonial export, second only to tobacco. Europeans also created Sassafras [[tea]], which soon became highly fashionable but lost its luster when Sassafras also gained the reputation as a cure for syphilis (unjustified). Early settlers considered the root bark as a virtual cure-all and also fermented the roots with molasses to make [[beer]], and during the Civil War Sassafras tea became a popular beverage. Oil extracted from the bark of the roots (eighty percent of which is safrole) remained in use as an antiseptic for dentistry and as a flavoring for [[toothpastes]], root beer, and chewing gum until the early 1960s, when the FDA banned its use as an additive, as safrole was found to be a carcinogen.

	= Fascinating Facts =		= Fascinating Facts =

ATM Machine

2010-09-10T11:26:11Z

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-	*Try to plan your visits to automatic teller during the day, rather than after dark.	+	* {{Tip\|Try to plan your visits to automatic teller during the day, rather than after dark.}}

-	*Choose an ATM location that is in a busy public place.	+	* {{Tip\|Choose an ATM location that is in a busy public place.}}

-	*Avoid making withdrawals in isolated areas.	+	* {{Tip\|Avoid making withdrawals in isolated areas.}}

-	*If at all possible, take along a friend who can watch the surroundings while you are conducting your transactions.	+	* {{Tip\|If at all possible, take along a friend who can watch the surroundings while you are conducting your transactions.}}

-	*Pre-plan your transaction carefully, and don’t spend too much time at the machine.	+	* {{Tip\|Pre-plan your transaction carefully, and don’t spend too much time at the machine.}}

-	*When you make a withdrawal, quickly place the money in your purse or wallet and leave as soon as you finish your transaction.	+	* {{Tip\|When you make a withdrawal, quickly place the money in your purse or wallet and leave as soon as you finish your transaction.}}

-	*Watch out for suspicious-looking people waiting around an ATM–they may not really be customers. If someone offers to let you go ahead of them, decline politely and leave.	+	* {{Tip\|Watch out for suspicious-looking people waiting around an ATM–they may not really be customers. If someone offers to let you go ahead of them, decline politely and leave.}}

-	*When visiting a drive-through ATM, keep your doors locked and be prepared to drive away quickly. If anyone approaches your car on foot, roll up your window and drive off.	+	* {{Tip\|When visiting a drive-through ATM, keep your doors locked and be prepared to drive away quickly. If anyone approaches your car on foot, roll up your window and drive off.}}

-	*If you have not finished your transaction, and you are approached by a suspicious character, press the CANCEL button, receive your card and leave quickly.	+	* {{Tip\|If you have not finished your transaction, and you are approached by a suspicious character, press the CANCEL button, receive your card and leave quickly.}}

	[[File:ATMsss.jpg\|220 px\|thumbnail\|An NCR Personas 75-Series interior, multi-function ATM in the USA\|right]]		[[File:ATMsss.jpg\|220 px\|thumbnail\|An NCR Personas 75-Series interior, multi-function ATM in the USA\|right]]
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	ATMs are known by various other names including Automated Transaction Machine, automated banking machine, cashpoint (in Britain), money machine, bank machine, cash machine, hole-in-the-wall, MAC Machine (in the Philadelphia area), Bankomat (in various countries in Europe and Russia), Multibanco (after a registered trade mark, in Portugal), and All Time Money in India.		ATMs are known by various other names including Automated Transaction Machine, automated banking machine, cashpoint (in Britain), money machine, bank machine, cash machine, hole-in-the-wall, MAC Machine (in the Philadelphia area), Bankomat (in various countries in Europe and Russia), Multibanco (after a registered trade mark, in Portugal), and All Time Money in India.
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	==Related devices==		==Related devices==
		+
		+	A Talking ATM is a type of ATM that provides audible instructions so that persons who cannot read an ATM screen can independently use the machine. All audible information is delivered privately through a standard headphone jack on the face of the machine. Alternatively, some banks such as the Nordea and Swedbank use a built-in external speaker which may be invoked by pressing the talk button on the keypad. Information is delivered to the customer either through pre-recorded sound files or via text-to-speech speech synthesis.
		+
		+	A postal interactive kiosk may also share many of the same components as an ATM (including a vault), but only dispenses items relating to postage.
		+
		+	A scrip cash dispenser may share many of the same components as an ATM, but lacks the ability to dispense physical cash and consequently requires no vault. Instead, the customer requests a withdrawal transaction from the machine, which prints a receipt. The customer then takes this receipt to a nearby sales clerk, who then exchanges it for cash from the till.
		+
		+	A Teller Assist Unit may also share many of the same components as an ATM (including a vault), but they are distinct in that they are designed to be operated solely by trained personnel and not the general public, they do not integrate directly into interbank networks, and are usually controlled by a computer that is not directly integrated into the overall construction of the unit.
		+
		+	==External links==
		+
		+	* [http://www.moneytowers.com/2007/news/happy-birthday-atm/ Britain celebrates 40 years of the ATM]
		+
		+	* [http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2004/07/26/377172/index.htm The Money Machines] – An account of U.S. ATM history; By Ellen Florian, Fortune.com
		+
		+	* [http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Financial_Services/Banking_Services/Automatic_Teller_Machines/ Automated teller machine] at the Open Directory Project

Sassafras

2010-09-10T11:20:04Z

Fascinating Facts:

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	= Fascinating Facts =		= Fascinating Facts =

-	* Sassafras plants have been known to repel mosquitoes and other insects.	+	* Sassafras plants have been known to repel [[Mosquito Repellent\|mosquitoes]] and other insects.
	* The tree has been referred to as the ornamental tree because of it's oddly shaped leaves.		* The tree has been referred to as the ornamental tree because of it's oddly shaped leaves.
-	* Sassafras is considered a "pioneer plant" because it was one of the first types of shrubs that grew in fields.	+	* Sassafras is considered a "pioneer [[Plant trees and vegetation\|plant]]" because it was one of the first types of [[Planting indigenous trees, shrubs and groundcovers\|shrubs]] that grew in fields.
	* The rich flavor from the sassafras roots have also been put into soups and stews for an unusual additional flavor.		* The rich flavor from the sassafras roots have also been put into soups and stews for an unusual additional flavor.
-	* The roots and bark of the sassafras tree has been used to make fuel, lumber and dye.	+	* The roots and bark of the sassafras tree has been used to make [[Buy fuel during coolest time of day\|fuel]], lumber and dye.
-	* Some soaps, lotions and medicine flavors have had the addition of oil from this tree, for an unusual, possibly somewhat exotic, smell or flavor.	+	* Some soaps, [[lotions]] and medicine flavors have had the addition of oil from this [[Use tea tree oil as disinfectant\|tree]], for an unusual, possibly somewhat exotic, smell or flavor.
-	* Recently, the Food and Drug Administration has determined that some of the substances in sassafras tree products can cause cancer.	+	* Recently, the [[Food]] and [[Drug Administration]] has determined that some of the substances in sassafras tree products can cause [[cancer]].

	= Sassafras Uses =		= Sassafras Uses =

File:ATM Masalli.jpg

2010-09-10T11:17:38Z

uploaded "[[File:ATM Masalli.jpg]]"

ATM Machine

2010-09-10T11:14:50Z

Fraud:

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	==Fraud==		==Fraud==
		+
		+	As with any device containing objects of value, ATMs and the systems they depend on to function are the targets of fraud. Fraud against ATMs and people's attempts to use them takes several forms.
		+
		+	The first known instance of a fake ATM was installed at a shopping mall in Manchester, Connecticut in 1993. By modifying the inner workings of a Fujitsu model 7020 ATM, a criminal gang known as The Bucklands Boys were able to steal information from cards inserted into the machine by customers.
		+
		+	In some cases, bank fraud could occur at ATMs whereby the bank accidentally stocks the ATM with bills in the wrong denomination, therefore giving the customer more money than should be dispensed. The result of receiving too much money may be influenced on the card holder agreement in place between the customer and the bank.
		+
		+	In a variation of this, WAVY-TV reported an incident in Virginia Beach of September 2006 where a hacker who had probably obtained a factory-default admin password for a gas station's white label ATM caused the unit to assume it was loaded with $5 USD bills instead of $20s, enabling himself—and many subsequent customers—to walk away with four times the money they said they wanted to withdraw. This type of scam was featured on the TV series The Real Hustle.
		+
		+	ATM behavior can change during what is called "stand-in" time, where the bank's cash dispensing network is unable to access databases that contain account information (possibly for database maintenance). In order to give customers access to cash, customers may be allowed to withdraw cash up to a certain amount that may be less than their usual daily withdrawal limit, but may still exceed the amount of available money in their account, which could result in fraud.
		+
		+	===Card fraud===
		+
		+	[[File:ATM_lineup_on_ground.jpg\|thumbnail\|220 px\|right\|ATM lineup]]
		+
		+	In an attempt to prevent criminals from shoulder surfing the customer's PINs, some banks draw privacy areas on the floor.
		+
		+	For a low-tech form of fraud, the easiest is to simply steal a customer's card. A later variant of this approach is to trap the card inside of the ATM's card reader with a device often referred to as a Lebanese loop. When the customer gets frustrated by not getting the card back and walks away from the machine, the criminal is able to remove the card and withdraw cash from the customer's account.
		+
		+	Another simple form of fraud involves attempting to get the customer's bank to issue a new card and stealing it from their mail.
		+
		+	The concept and various methods of copying the contents of an ATM card's magnetic stripe on to a duplicate card to access other people's financial information was well known in the hacking communities by late 1990.
		+
		+	[[File:Tamper_warning_on_ATM_in_London.jpg\|220 px\|left\|thumbnail\|Some ATMs may put up warning messages to customers to not use them when it detects possible tampering]]
		+
		+	[[File:ATM_Masalli.jpg\|180 px\|thumbnail\|right\|A big queue at an ATM in Masalli, Azerbaijan.]]
		+
		+	In 1996 Andrew Stone, a computer security consultant from Hampshire in the UK, was convicted of stealing more than £1 million (at the time equivalent to US$1.6 million) by pointing high definition video cameras at ATMs from a considerable distance, and by recording the card numbers, expiry dates, etc. from the embossed detail on the ATM cards along with video footage of the PINs being entered. After getting all the information from the videotapes, he was able to produce clone cards which not only allowed him to withdraw the full daily limit for each account, but also allowed him to sidestep withdrawal limits by using multiple copied cards. In court, it was shown that he could withdraw as much as £10,000 per hour by using this method. Stone was sentenced to five years and six months in prison.
		+
		+	By contrast, a newer high-tech method of operating sometimes called card skimming or card cloning involves the installation of a magnetic card reader over the real ATM's card slot and the use of a wireless surveillance camera or a modified digital camera to observe the user's PIN. Card data is then cloned onto a second card and the criminal attempts a standard cash withdrawal. The availability of low-cost commodity wireless cameras and card readers has made it a relatively simple form of fraud, with comparatively low risk to the fraudsters.
		+
		+	In an attempt to stop these practices, countermeasures against card cloning have been developed by the banking industry, in particular by the use of smart cards which cannot easily be copied or spoofed by unauthenticated devices, and by attempting to make the outside of their ATMs tamper evident. Older chip-card security systems include the French Carte Bleue, Visa Cash, Mondex, Blue from American Express and EMV '96 or EMV 3.11. The most actively developed form of smart card security in the industry today is known as EMV 2000 or EMV 4.x.
		+
		+	EMV is widely used in the UK (Chip and PIN) and other parts of Europe, but when it is not available in a specific area, ATMs must fallback to using the easy–to–copy magnetic stripe to perform transactions. This fallback behaviour can be exploited. However the fallback option has been removed by several UK banks, meaning if the chip is not read, the transaction will be declined.
		+
		+	In February 2009, a group of criminals used counterfeit ATM cards to steal $9 million from 130 ATMs in 49 cities around the world all within a time period of 30 minutes.
		+
		+	Card cloning and skimming can be detected by the implementation of magnetic card reader heads and firmware that can read a signature embedded in all magnetic stripes during the card production process. This signature known as a "MagnePrint" or "BluPrint" can be used in conjunction with common two factor authentication schemes utilized in ATM, debit/retail point-of-sale and prepaid card applications.
		+
		+	Another ATM fraud issue is ATM card theft which includes credit card trapping and debit card trapping at ATMs. Originating in South America this type of ATM fraud has spread globally. Although somewhat replaced in terms of volume by ATM skimming incidents, a re-emergence of card trapping has been noticed in regions such as Europe where EMV Chip and PIN cards have increased in circulation.
		+
		+	==Related devices==

File:ATM OS2 Crash.jpg

2010-09-10T11:08:53Z

uploaded "[[File:ATM OS2 Crash.jpg]]"

ATM Machine

2010-09-10T11:07:40Z

Reliability:

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	==Reliability==		==Reliability==
		+
		+	[[File:DeLaRue_ATM_Crash.jpg\|thumbnail\|220 px\|left\|An ATM running Microsoft Windows that has crashed]]
		+
		+	Before an ATM is placed in a public place, it typically has undergone extensive testing with both test money and the backend computer systems that allow it to perform transactions. Banking customers also have come to expect high reliability in their ATMs, which provides incentives to ATM providers to minimize machine and network failures. Financial consequences of incorrect machine operation also provide high degrees of incentive to minimize malfunctions.
		+
		+	ATMs and the supporting electronic financial networks are generally very reliable, with industry benchmarks typically producing 98.25% customer availability for ATMs and up to 99.999% availability for host systems. If ATMs do go out of service, customers could be left without the ability to make transactions until the beginning of their bank's next time of opening hours.
		+
		+	This said, not all errors are to the detriment of customers; there have been cases of machines giving out money without debiting the account, or giving out higher value notes as a result of incorrect denomination of banknote being loaded in the money cassettes. Errors that can occur may be mechanical (such as card transport mechanisms; keypads; hard disk failures); software (such as operating system; device driver; application); communications; or purely down to operator error.
		+
		+	[[File:ATM_OS2_Crash.jpg\|220 px\|thumbnail\|right\|An ATM running OS/2 that has crashed]]
		+
		+	To aid in reliability, some ATMs print each transaction to a roll paper journal that is stored inside the ATM, which allows both the users of the ATMs and the related financial institutions to settle things based on the records in the journal in case there is a dispute. In some cases, transactions are posted to an electronic journal to remove the cost of supplying journal paper to the ATM and for more convenient searching of data.
		+
		+	Improper money checking can cause the possibility of a customer receiving counterfeit banknotes from an ATM. While bank personnel are generally trained better at spotting and removing counterfeit cash, the resulting ATM money supplies used by banks provide no absolute guarantee for proper banknotes, as the Federal Criminal Police Office of Germany has confirmed that there are regularly incidents of false banknotes having been dispensed through bank ATMs. Some ATMs may be stocked and wholly owned by outside companies, which can further complicate this problem. Bill validation technology can be used by ATM providers to help ensure the authenticity of the cash before it is stocked in an ATM; ATMs that have cash recycling capabilities include this capability.
		+
		+	==Fraud==

Sassafras

2010-09-10T10:57:49Z

Sassafras Uses:

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	= Sassafras Uses =		= Sassafras Uses =
	[[image:Sassafras_flower.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Sassafras Flower\|190px]]		[[image:Sassafras_flower.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Sassafras Flower\|190px]]
-	* Uses of the sassafras tree are countless, as most parts of the tree are used for producing different products. Sassafras essential oil is extracted from its root bark using the process of steam distillation. The oil's main component is safrole, which is used to add fragrance to perfumes, soaps and cosmetic products. While purchasing this essential oil, bear in mind that a large amount of effort in terms of root bark quantity and extraction is required to get a small yield of the oil, hence it is not easily available. Many stores sell it under the guise of 'commercial sassafras oil', which is actually a by-product of camphor produced in Asia and/or Brazil. On the flip side its component safrole is also used for illegal manufacturing of the ecstasy drugs.	+	* Uses of the sassafras tree are countless, as most parts of the [[Tree trimming\|tree]] are used for producing different [[products]]. Sassafras essential oil is extracted from its root [[cinnamon\|bark]] using the process of steam distillation. The oil's main component is safrole, which is used to add [[organic fragrance\|fragrance]] to perfumes, soaps and [[cosmetics\|cosmetic]] products. While purchasing this essential oil, bear in mind that a large amount of effort in terms of root bark quantity and extraction is required to get a small yield of the oil, hence it is not easily available. Many stores sell it under the guise of 'commercial sassafras oil', which is actually a by-product of camphor produced in Asia and/or Brazil. On the flip side its component safrole is also used for illegal manufacturing of the ecstasy [[Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs\|drugs]].

-	* Sassafras leaves are used to make a spice known as filé powder. Leaves are picked green, dried and grounded into a fine powder and is used to make stew or soup; gumbo. Sassafras roots are used to flavor tea and root beer. Native Americans made this tea by seeping the root in boiling water. The tea was used specifically as an anticoagulant, a substance that prevents blood from clotting and as a cure for the common sexually transmitted infection; gonorrhea. Understand the pros and cons of drinking sassafras tea by going through the available information; sassafras tea health benefits and sassafras tea effects.	+	* Sassafras leaves are used to make a spice known as filé [[Scouring powder\|powder]]. Leaves are picked green, dried and grounded into a fine powder and is used to make stew or soup; gumbo. Sassafras roots are used to flavor tea and root [[beer]]. Native Americans made this tea by seeping the root in boiling [[water]]. The tea was used specifically as an anticoagulant, a substance that prevents blood from clotting and as a cure for the common sexually transmitted infection; gonorrhea. Understand the pros and cons of [[drinking tips\|drinking]] sassafras tea by going through the available information; sassafras tea [[health effects\|health]] benefits and sassafras tea effects.

-	* An important source of food and shelter, the sassafras tree is very important to the wildlife. As the twigs and leaves are tender, it is fondly enjoyed by deer, groundhogs, marsh rabbits, etc. Bears and beavers enjoy the roots and bark of the sassafras tree. The fruits borne by the tree are consumed by the quail, great crested flycatchers, woodpeckers, wild turkeys, mockingbirds, etc. The sassafras tree is also a popular ornamental and shade tree used in many landscapes. They are grown along sidewalks, parkways and residential areas.	+	* An important source of [[food]] and shelter, the sassafras tree is very important to the wildlife. As the twigs and leaves are tender, it is fondly enjoyed by deer, groundhogs, marsh rabbits, etc. Bears and beavers enjoy the roots and bark of the sassafras tree. The [[apple\|fruits]] borne by the tree are consumed by the quail, great crested flycatchers, woodpeckers, wild turkeys, mockingbirds, etc. The sassafras tree is also a popular ornamental and shade tree used in many [[Pests in gardens, landscapes and turfs\|landscapes]]. They are grown along sidewalks, parkways and residential areas.

-	* Sassafras tree uses, especially its oil, spice and tea meant for human consumption and use has come under fire from the FDA, when it was banned in 1960 based on the studies and tests conducted on humans and animals. However, several years later, was categorized as generally recognized as safe, in dietary supplements that contain insignificant or negligible amounts of safrole.	+	* Sassafras tree uses, especially its oil, spice and tea meant for human consumption and use has come under [[Fire safety\|fire]] from the FDA, when it was banned in 1960 based on the studies and tests conducted on humans and animals. However, several years later, was categorized as generally recognized as [[Safety Tips\|safe]], in dietary supplements that contain insignificant or negligible amounts of safrole.

	= Benefits =		= Benefits =

Helichrysum

2010-09-10T10:22:10Z

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	* '''Species''' Helichrysum formosissimum Sch. Bip. – everlasting-flower		* '''Species''' Helichrysum formosissimum Sch. Bip. – everlasting-flower

		+	= Derivation =

-	* Helichrysum ~~bracteatum, or Strawflower,~~ is ~~a stout perennial native~~ to ~~Australia~~. ~~Here~~ in ~~Oklahoma we grow it as a summer annual~~. The ~~3 foot~~ (~~0.9 m~~) ~~tall plants have 5 inch~~ (~~12.7 cm~~) ~~long oblong-lanceolate leaves. Flowers of this species are great as cut flowers and~~ when ~~they are dried,~~ the ~~papery flowers will last indefinitely. Dwarf forms are available~~. The ~~plants are easy to culture and make excellent container plants~~.	+	* The name Helichrysum is derived from Greek word Helios meaning sun and chrysos meaning gold, referring to the bright yellow colour of the flower heads. The species name splendidum means splendid in Latin. The Afrikaans common name, sewejaartjie is given to most of the helichrysums with papery, everlasting flowers, and is derived from the belief that the flower heads last for seven (sewe) years (jaar) when kept in the house. The prefix geel means yellow.

-	Blooming: In the greenhouse, the plants will bloom nonstop from 10 weeks after sowing and will continue to flower until frost gets them in the landscape. Flowers are papery and will reach up to 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) across. Flowers come in shades of yellow, orange, reds and whites. They are very showy.	+	* Helichrysum splendidum belongs to the Asteraceae or daisy family one of the largest and most well known families. Worldwide there are 1530 genera and about 22800 species in this family. In the genus Helichrysum, also known as strawflower, strooiblom or sewejaartjie there are about 500 species, which are found mainly in Africa.
		+
		+	* Blooming: In the greenhouse, the plants will bloom nonstop from 10 weeks after sowing and will continue to flower until frost gets them in the landscape. Flowers are papery and will reach up to 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) across. Flowers come in shades of yellow, orange, reds and whites. They are very showy.

	= DESCRIPTION =		= DESCRIPTION =

	* This is a large group that includes annuals, herbaceous perennials and shrubs. The annuals are the most popular, for their flowers are cut and dried for winter decoration; they are found wild in Australia. They grow 2 to 3 feet high and have oblong or lanceolate leaves up to 5 inches long. Their flowers are 2 to 3 inches across and resemble daisies. The petals are dry and shiny and come in almost every color except blue. They should be cut just before they fully open when they are used for drying. H. arenarium, a hardy perennial, grows about 10 inches high and has oval leaves and bright yellow flowers. H. rosmarinifolium is a shrubby kind native of Australia. It grows 8 feet high, has ribbed branches and narrow leaves, an inch long. The branches and leaves are sticky. The small, white flowers are produced abundantly throughout the summer. H. lanatum is a sub-shrubby kind, which grows about 12 inches high and has small leaves covered with silvery fuzz. H. bellidioides and H. frigidum are great for the rock garden. They have small, white flowers.		* This is a large group that includes annuals, herbaceous perennials and shrubs. The annuals are the most popular, for their flowers are cut and dried for winter decoration; they are found wild in Australia. They grow 2 to 3 feet high and have oblong or lanceolate leaves up to 5 inches long. Their flowers are 2 to 3 inches across and resemble daisies. The petals are dry and shiny and come in almost every color except blue. They should be cut just before they fully open when they are used for drying. H. arenarium, a hardy perennial, grows about 10 inches high and has oval leaves and bright yellow flowers. H. rosmarinifolium is a shrubby kind native of Australia. It grows 8 feet high, has ribbed branches and narrow leaves, an inch long. The branches and leaves are sticky. The small, white flowers are produced abundantly throughout the summer. H. lanatum is a sub-shrubby kind, which grows about 12 inches high and has small leaves covered with silvery fuzz. H. bellidioides and H. frigidum are great for the rock garden. They have small, white flowers.

Skin disease

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[[acne]]

[[psoriasis]]

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	* [[Allergy treatments]]		* [[Allergy treatments]]
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Sugarcane

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[[image:sugarcane.jpg|right|thumb|Sugar Cane]]

=Introduction=

* Sugarcane and sugarbeet are the main sources of [[Sugar]] in the world.
* Out of total sugar produced in the world 60 per cent is obtained only from sugarcane.
* Asia is the largest producer of sugar followed by Europe
* Most of the sugar in [[Asia]] comes from sugarcane whereas in Europe from sugarbeet.
* Presently sugarcane is grown in an area of 16 m. ha. in over 79 countries.
* The global production of raw sugar is 112 m.t.
* The consumption is anticipated at 110 m.t. with a little carryover stocks. India stands first in area (3.93 m. ha) and production (167 m.t) among the sugarcane growing countries of the world.
* However, per hectare yields (68 t/ha) are less than many important countries.
* The main reason for low productivity of sugarcane in the country is that this crop is grown in very small holdings by onillious of farmers under extremely diverse growing conditions - most favourable ones to least favourable ones.
* Therefore, our sugarcane production problems are quiet different from other countries and hence, require specific production technologies that could be adopted by our farming situations.
* Uttar Pradesh has the largest area almost 50 per cent of the cane area in the country, followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab. These nine are most important sugarcane producing states.
* Sugarcane production is also highest in U.P. followed by Maharashtra. Productivity wise, Tamilnadu stands first with over 100 tonnes per hectare followed by Karnataka, Maharashtra. Bihar has the lowest productivity amount the major sugarcane growing states.
* The sugar Industry is the second largest agro-based industry, next only to Textiles, in the country.
* There are 444 sugar factories (1995-96) which utilise around 40-50% of the cane produced manufacturing 16.45 m.t of sugar with an average crushing capacity of 2,452 tonnes per day and a crushing duration of 161 days.
* The sugar industry contributes over 1,000 crores to the Central Exchequer as excise duty and taxes annually.
* Besides, almost an equal amount is realised by the state Governments through purchase taxes, cess etc.
* At present sugarcane price, total value of sugarcane produced in the country is around 15,000 crores per year.
* The domestic sugar consumption is 13.2 m.tonnes with an export of 1.0 m.tonnes.
* The percapita consumption of white sugar is 14.1 kg and that of gur and Khand sari is 8.1 kg.
* Sugar factories, being located in rural areas, supporting huge economic activities in the rural India. This sugar industry generates rural employment.
* Sugarcane is a renewable, natural agricultural resource because it provides sugar, besides biofuel, fibre, fertilizer and myriad of by products/co-products with ecological sustainability.
* In addition to sugar, 38 value added products of commercial importance are attained.
* Sugar juice is used for making white sugar, brown sugar (Khandsari) and Jaggery (Gur).
* The main by products of sugar industry are bagasse and molasses. Molasses, the chief by-product, is the main raw material for alcohol and thus for alcohol - based industries in the country.
* During the year 1994-95, 6.5 million tonnes of molasses was produced in the country. Sugarcane bagasse (the fibrous material leftover after crushing) is the chief source of power in the sugar mills.
* Excess bagasse is now being used as raw material in the paper industry.
* Besides, co-generation of power using bagasse as fuel is considered feasible in most sugar mills, it has been estimated that about 3500 MW power can be generated annually with out extra fuel and investments much less than required for generating the same through thermal power plants.
* Another by-product, Pressmud, contains Considerable amount of plant nitrients and could be an important source of organic matter, major and micronutrients.
* Sugarcane green tops are used as cattle feed. In urban areas sugarcane juice has great demand as a thirst quencher.
* Sugarcane provides the cheapest form of energy giving food (Sucrose) with the lowest unit of land area per unit of energy produced.
* It has been estimated that an average man's annual food consumption is equivalent approximately to one million calories.
* Under present agricultural system, this is produced by 1/8 of an acre of sugarcane, while whole wheat flour requires seven times, milk 20 times and beef over 100 times as much land to produce the same amount.

=Origin=

* Modern sugarcane is a complex hybrid of two or more of five species of the genus Saccharum.
* It belongs to family Gramineae, class monocotyledons and order glumaceae sub family panicoidae, tribe Andripogoneae and subtribe saccharininea.
* The cultivated canes belong to two main groups:
(a) thin, hardy north Indian types S.barberi and the Chinese S.Sinense and
(b) thick, juicy noble canes S.Officinarum.
* Highly prized cane is S.Officinarum. It is probably evolved from S.robustum by introgression from other genera.
* Thus, S.robustum is the closest wild relative and putative ancestor of S.officinarum.
* It is agreed that the origin of S.officinarum is the Indo-Myanmar china border with New Guinea as the main centre of diversity.
* The officinarums are called the "noble canes' due to thick, juicy, low-fibred canes of high sucrose content.
* The process of nobilization in Sugarcane is the modified back crossing of wild cane.
* S.spontaneum with S.Officinarum and a repeated back crossing to the noble parent (S.Officinarum).
* Some of the important noble cane cultivars were Otaheita, Cheribon, Calodonia, Badila etc.
* However, by 1975, the noble cane era ended due to serious diseases like mosaic, sereh, smut and red rot.
* It is stated that the cradle of cultivated sugarcane is the region where two wild species i.e., saccharum spontaneum and S.robustum are found. S.robustum is derived from natural crossing between S.spontaneum and Miscanthis floridulus and the origin is New Guinea.
* The origin of S.spontaneum is subtropical India. The habitat of these two wild canes is swamps, river banks, water courses etc.
* One small group of canes is S.edule which is related to S.robustum and the aborted inflorescences of these species are used as food by the natives of Melanesia.
* Cultivation of sugarcane in India dates back to the Vedie period.
* The earliest mention of sugarcane cultivation is found in Indian writings of the period 1400 to 1000 B.C. the word 'sugar' is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Sankkara' or 'sarkara'.
* Barber (1931) was of the opinion that the thin Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of north eastern Indian, from some plant closely related to Saccharum spontaneum. (Kans).Tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Occania, most probably in New Guinea.
* Brandes (1956) also concluded that it originated in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall, tropical cane have been grown from ancient times

=Species of sugarcane=

The genus Saccharum has five important species viz.,

1. Saccharum Officinarum,
2. S.Sinense
3. S.barberi
4. S.robustum
5. S.spontanuem.

The first three species are the cultivated species and the last two are wild ones.

==Saccharum Officinarum==

* This is the species usually referred to when we speak of sugarcane.
* This is one of the original cultivated species, though none of the original officinarums is industrially grown at present.
* Several officinarum varieties were under cultivation before the advent of hybrid varieties. It is rich in sucrose.
* Its stalks are vigorous and long with low fibre content. The Dutch scientists called them "noble canes". It has 2n=80 chromosomes. At present they are grown for chewing purpose.

==Saccharum sinense==

* This is known as "Chinese Cane" as its place of origin is central and South east China.
* It is thin stalked with long internodes, and long and narrow leaves.
* They are low and in sucrose and purity, high in fibre and starch.
* The chromosome number is 2n=111 to 120. "Uba" is one of the notable varieties under this species which was in cultivation in several countries.
* At present the species is considered unsuitable for commercial cultivation.

==Saccharum barberi==

* This species derives its name from the scientist Dr.C.A.Barber who described these original canes of subtropical India.
* This is known as "Indian species". It has chromosome numbers 2n=81 to 124.
* These were under large scale cultivation in the subtropical India for manufacture of gur and Khandsari sugar.
* These are sturdier and disease resistant and have higher sugar and fibre contents. They are thin stalked.
* The clones of this species are highly tolerant to high and low temperatures, problem soils and water logged conditions.
* However, because of their very poor yields, they are not under commercial cultivation at present.

==Saccharum robustum==

* This species was discovered in New Guinea Islands. The stalks are long, thick and vigorous growing.
* It is rich in fibre and poor in sugar. The chromosome number is 2n=60 and 80.
* This is a wild species and not suitable for [[Agriculture|agricultural]] production.

==Saccharum spontaneum==

* This is also known as "wild cane". Its varieties have varying number of chromosomes (2n=40 to 128). Considerable variation is noticed in the morphology of the species.
* In general the cane is very thin and short, the leaves are narrow and hard.
* The plant is very sturdy and resistant to most [[disease]].
* The species is not useful for sugar production.
* The sugar content is very low.
* This species is useful for evolving hybrid varieties particularly to obtain disease and stress resistant types.
* Both the Chinese and Indian canes were carried by Arab traders to Persia, Syria, Cyprus, Malta and Sicily in the Mediterranean.
* Alexander the great took this "honey reed" to Aftica after the conquest of India. By the 15th centruty it reached Europe via Egypt and Marocco and in the 17th century, it moved to the "Sugar isles" of the Caribbean and North East Brazil.
* By the 19th century sugar beet got established as an industrial crop.
* But 60 per cent of sugar comes from sugarcane and is distributed in 37 North and South of Equator.
* Presently this giant grass is grown in over 79 countries.
* Sugarcane is intimately associated with Indian mythology.
* The word saccharum seems to originate from Sanskrit word "Sarkara". It symbolises prosperity for it adorns Goddess of wealth "Sri Lakshmi".
* The most ancient reference to sugarcane is in Athervaveda which is 5000 years old.
* It is also referred extensively in Buddhist literature. During Alexander's invasion, hig generals observed sugarcane as a closely managed garden crop.
* Now India has been widely accepted as the original home of this sugarcanes that were under cultivation in North India.
* Ancient Greek doctors referred it as "Indian [[Salt]]".

=Distribution=

* Sugarcane is grown over the land surface of the earth between latitudes 35oN and 35oS.
* The important sugarcane producing countries in the world are India, Cuba, Brazil, Mexico, Pakistan, chine, Philippines and Thailand.
* It is one of the important crops of the world cultivated over an Modern Techniques of Raising Field Crops area of 13.46 million hectares with a total production of 754.13 million tonnes of cane (1979)
* In India area and production of sugarcane has been fluctuating from year to year depending upon pricing policy and climatic conditions.
* It occupies about 3.1 million hectares. The total production of cane is 156.45 million tonnes.
* Uttar Pradesh has the largest acreage under sugarcane, and accounts for about 52 per cent of the area under this crop in whole of India and also accounts for 40 per cent of the total annual production.
* Productivity is the highest in Tamil Nadu followed by Maharashtra and Karnataka.
* India ranks first among sugarcane-growing countries of the world in both extent of area and production of cane. Along with white sugar, Khandsari (indigenous) sugar and gur(jaggery) are also consumed in the country.
* Parthasarathy (1946) referred to Tamil classics of the Sangam period (2000BC) Pattirrup-pattu where refrences were made to growth, arrowing and cultivation.
* Caraka reported in 100BC about existance of two sugarcane types viz., iksh and Paundra.
* In 200 BC Patanjali mentioned that by about 400 BC sugarcane was familiar at Takshasila. There were citations on sugarcane during 800 BC in Atharva Veda and Manu in 1000 BC.
* Sugarcane was first mentioned in China during 286 AD (Bashan) and it was reported to be known in the period of Su-ma-siang Ju.
* After the time of Buddha, Indian sailors who possibly had contacts with Burma, Indonesia and Malaya would have brought Saccharum officinarum to India from Indonesia.
* Saccharum is the Latin name proposed by Linne in 1753 as a derivation from Karkara and Sakkara from Sanskrit and Prakrit.
* It is the opinion of many explorers that sugarcane had its origin in Saccharum barberi Jesweit of North India, and that Saccharum officinarum had Polynesian origin.
* Barber and Jesweit (1930) indicated that Saccharum officinarum evolved in Malaysia - Indonesia-Papua-new Guinea region or in the islands of Polynesia or Melanesia groups.
* Brandes et al. have mentioned in records of their expedition during 1928 that maximum diversity was noted in New Guinea from where Saccharum officnarum might have evolved and since S. robustum was endemic to this area, the latter may be the ancestor of the former. It was accepted then as both the species had chromosome number of 2n= 80. Warner and Grassl also confirmed it after the expedition in 1957.

=Industrial and other uses of Sugarcane=

* Sugarcane used for the production of white sugar, Jaggery (Gur), Khandsari.
* In addition, sugarcane also used for chewing and extraction of juice for beverage purpose.

=Manufacture of Sugar=

* Sugarcane consists of sugars as well as non-sugars, several processes such as clarification, concentration, crystallisation and purification are needed to separate sugar from non sugars.
* The main objective of the heavy complex machinery installed in a sugar factory is to aid such separation in cane juice in the most efficient manner possible.

=Modern Manufacturing Processes=

==Cane Preparation==

* The cane stalks are carried in the cane carrier by two endless chains of roller type and placed at an angle.
* They are cut into chips by a set of revolving knives and are also torn into shreds by hammer mill shredders reversal of cane knives is also being adopted to improve efficiency of cane preparation.
* The shredders help shredding the cane to improve mill extraction and crushing
* Heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane and extract the juice. Intensive preparation of cane helps in increasing the capacity and extraction of the milling plant.

==Cane Crushing==

* A sugar mill consists of multiple units (4 to 6) of three roller combination (12 to 18 rollers in all). In each set, three rollers are arranged in a triangular form and are called (i) Cane or feed roller (ii) Top roller and (iii) bagasse or discharge roller.
* Feed roller and bagasse roller are fixed at the bottom while the top roller may vary in position according to the feed of cane and the thickness of matting of prepared cane.
* Steam engines or turbines are used for driving the mills. Hydraulic pressure on the top roller enables extraction of maximum juice from the crushed cane leaving bagasse.
* The final bagasse or crushed cane is wood fibre containing about 48% to 50% moisture and is generally used in the boilers as fuel but can be used for manufacture of paperboard of paper.

==Imbibition==

* Sprays of water or thin juice and this process is called ' imbibition' or 'macertation'.

==Sucrose extraction==

* Adoption of modern methods in imbibition enables extraction of over 93% of sugar in cane, and this is known as sugar extraction .
* The mixed juice contains particles of fine bagasse which are removed before the juice goes for clarification.

==Clarification==

* The juice from the mills is turbid, dark green in colour, acidic in character and contains both soluble and insoluble impurities.
* These are removed by using chemicals and heat as clarifying agents and this process is called clarification.
* Heating and filtering removes the colloids which cause turbidity in juice.
* Lime treatment removes gums, pectins, organic and inorganic acid salts by precipitation.
* Colouring matter is removed by treatment with sulphur dioxide.
* The juice extracted by the mills is passed through a metal strainer to remove suspended purities. Use of clarifying agents like Milk of [[Lime]] and Sulphur dioxide helps in precipitation Non-sugars as mud gets separated from clear juice by sedimentation in classifiers and are filtered with the help of rotary drum vacuum filters.
* The precipitate from the juice is called press cake, and is used as fertiliser and in preparation of other byproducts while the clarified light juice is sent to the evaporators.
* Two processes are in vogue in clarification the more common one is sulphitition and the other is carbonation.

==Sulphitition==

* [[Milk]] of [[Lime]] is added to the raw juice to neutralise the acidity of the juice and to keep the juice alkaline up to PH 9.0-10.5. Excess lime is neutralised by passing sulphur dioxide gas. Sulphur dioxide is used as the chief bleaching agent to make the juice brilliant and light in colour.
* The juice treated with lime and sulphur dioxide is heated to boiling point so that the precipitate settles down leaving the clear juice at the top.

==Carbonation==

* In this process excess of lime is neutralised by passing carbon dioxide gas resulting in precipitate of calcium carbonate.
* The lime stone mixed with coke is burnt in a special kiln to obtain burnt lime as well as carbon dioxide.
* Carbonation is a costlier process than sulphitition as the requirement of lime is high.
* The whole juice after treatments filtered using plate frame type filters. But the latest system is to have continuous clarification in a single tray-type clarifier with vacuum filters.

==Evaporation==

* The clarified juice contains about 85% water, two thirds of which is evaporated in a series of vaccum boiling cells of multiple effect evaporators thus-avoiding destruction of sugar caused by boiling of juice over direct fire or by steam in air.
* This also results in better fuel economy. These evaporator are arranged in a series and the juice is boiled in such a way that each succeeding evaporator has a higher vacuum and therefore boils at a lower temperature.
* The juice thus become more and more concentrated and in the last evaporator turn into syrup containing about 60-65% solids and the rest water.

==Sugar boiling and crystallisation==

* The evaporated syrup is black in colour. Sulphur dioxide is passed-through this syrup to' bleach the colouring matter
* The sulphured syrup is then evaporated till it gets saturate with sugar.
* Seed grain is added to serve as nuclei for sugar crystals and as the water evaporates syrup is further added.
* The concentration of syrup and formation of crystals achieved in-vacuum pans.
* Pan boiling is an important skilled operation as the size and colour of crystals of the fin product sugar are determined by the quality of pan boiling.
* In a boiling system 3 types of massecuites A, B C are dealt with the first Grade A' massecuite, which produced by boiling the Syrup alone and other higher pure materials like melt etc., is centrifuged to separate sugar as molasses and these are called 'A' sugar and 'A' heavy molasses and after washing, 'A' light molasses. Similarly from 'B' & massecuites' 'B' & 'C' sugars.

==Diffusion==

* In some sugar factories cane is prepared by two sets of cane knives and one set of mills for primary extraction of about 65% to 70% of the sugar content and the remaining Sugar in bagasse is extracted by the diffuser.
* The bagasse contains 85% moisture which has to be reduced to about 48%-50% before it can be used as fuel in the boilers.
* slurry of prepared cane material is passed through the diffuser with conveyor,it is subjected to intensive sprays of juice of progressively decreasing concentration.
* The bagasse coming out of the diffuser contains large quantity of residual juice which is squeezed out by passing the bagasse through one or two sets of three roller mills.
* The residual juice extracted by the dewatering mills is screened and milk of lime added to bring the PH of the juice to 9.0, heated to 800 C and sent to the clarifier for settling the suspended impurities.
* Operation of the diffuser is fully-automatic with minimal manual supervision.

==Centrifuging==

* The massecuite from the crystallisers is pumped into a revolving, machine called 'centrifuge'. Washing with water and then steaming under high speed, the centrifugal force of the centrifuges is increased expelling molasses into the casing of the machine, retaining sugar crystals on-the perforated sheet.
* Spinning is continued till the- sugar crystals are practically free from molasses. Such separation is called 'purging' or' curing.
* The use of superheated steam or wash water has eliminated the process of drying of sugar but on the other hand the sugar has to be cooled in a cooler before it is packed in jute bags.
* The final molasses which is heavy and viscous contains about one-third sucrose, one-third reducing sugars and the rest non-sugars. It serves as raw material for production of industrial alcohol and yeast and is also useful as cattle feed.

==Grading==

* Grading of sugar is done in sugar graders of vibrating type with different decks fitted with various meshes and the sugar from each deck is collected through separate chutes into the bags; directly.
* Grading of sugar is done according, to size of grain and presently there are five grades in India viz., A1, B, C, D & E of which A1 has the biggest and 'E' has the smallest crystal size.
* Sugar is classified according to colour also, Presently there are only two colours 29 and 30. The later, being superior to the former.
* With five grain sizes and two colours, there are in all ten grades of sugar.
* Recently under new gradation, Government of India reduced the existing five grain sizes to three grades Large, Medium and Small, the two colour series remaining as they are.
* The new gradation has come into force from 1984-85 crushing season.

==Packing and weighing==

* Sugar is packed in 100 kg bags which are stitched mostly by machines.
* Sugar for export is packed in 50 kg special gunny bags having polythene lining to withstand multiple handling and transportation to long distances.

==Storage==

* Sugar bags are stored in pucca godowns mostly by manual labour. In many of the factories stacking is now being done by conveyor belts and stacking equipment. .
* Raw Sugar: A major portion of world's sugar production is from sugarcane and also from sugar beet .
* Next to white sugare "Gur" is in great demand particularly in rural India.

==Uses of Jaggery==

* For preparing many traditional sweets.
* For preparing country liquor (arrack)
* Thick syrup of Jaggery (Kakvi) consumed along with chapatis and rotis.
* Added to several culinary preparations.
* Added as one of the ingradient in some pickles.
* A component in several traditional home remidies.
* Used in preparing cattle feed
* Thick Jaggery solution is fed to honey bees to prepare honey.

==Quality parameters of Jaggery==

* Colour (light, golden yellow colour)
* Hardness (should be hard)
* Structure (crystalline structure)
* Taste (Sweet without any saltishness or any other taste)
* Flavour (Pleasant flavour)
* Shelf life (longer keeping quality)

==Quality parameters of Juice for getting good quality Jaggery==

* High sucrose and high purity
* High total sugars
* High level of Phosphate content.
* Low level of colloidal matter, ash, mineral matter and organic non-sugar such as nitrogen (higher N produce soft Jaggery) amino acids (higher amino-acid content gives dark colour to Jaggery), starch and gums.

==How to get good quality Jaggery==

* Select varieties having high sucrose content, high purity and low colloids.
* Choose early maturing, high sugared varieties (COC 671, Co 6907, CoJ64, Co 7704 etc).
* Well drained medium to light textured soils with neutral pH and less salt content are preferred.
* Calcareous soils gives poor quality Jaggery.
* Soils with high pH and CaCo3 gives juice with more ash and colloids leads to poor quality.
* Swampy soils - poor keeping quality.
* Heavy black soils - black colour to jaggery.
* Early planting is advantageous.
* Avoid late and excess manuring particulary N.
* Use more organic sources of nutrients.
* P-application useful for better clarification.
* P-application neutralise ill effects of N.
* Ammonium sulphate is better N-fertlizer over urea (since sulphur is present)
* Late application of fertlizers is deleterious.
* Irrigation with saline water gives soft and saltish-taste Jaggery.
* Provide less irrigation at maturity for better sugar accumulation.
* Pest and disease infested cane give poor quality Jaggery.
* Immature or over matured canes have less sugar and more non-sugars and reducing sugars leads to poor keeping quality (inversion of sucrose is a serious problem in overaged canes).
* Flowered cane should be avoided.
* There should not be pith in the cane.
* Crush the cane within 24 hours of harvest.
* Harvesting to ground level is important since, the lower internodes are rich in sucrose.
* Avoid crushing of top internodes.

=='Gur' manufacture==

* Gur manufacture is an important cottage industry from ancient times.
* Though considerable technology was developed on scientific lines from imporvement in crushers for better extraction of juice to the storage of Gum.
* Yet, it must be admitted that the processing of gur continues to be crude and waste ful.
* Three main operations are involved in the manufacture of gur i. extraction of Juice from cane ii. Purification of Juice, and iii) Concentration into gur.

==Extraction==

* Extraction of juice is done with a crusher or series of crushers.
* A six-roller hydraulic crusher, having a crushing capacity of 4 tonnes / we, has been designed by the National Sugar Institute, Kanpur, which is said to give 80% extraction and can increase the recovery of gur from 10 to12%.

==Clarrification==

* The juice is boiled for concentration and removal of dissolved foreign material in a circular pan made of iron or zinc sheets, over a furnace.
* The suspended impurities and the gummy colloidal constituents in the Juice are removed by coagulation during the first heating, lasting about 30-45 minutes.
* Then the juice is clarrified using clarificants to remove all impurities which would favour inversion of sugar. Lime is the most widely used chemical clarificants by virtue of its easy availability, begins to crystallize.
* It is stirred slowly and intermittently to avoid loss of granular structure.
* The semi-solid mass is then put into moulds.

==Khandsari industry==

* The word "Khandsari" is derived from the word "Khandsale" meaning sugar house with the development of the whole sugar industry, the word Khandsari came to represent the old indigenous process of white sugar manufacture.
* Khandsari sugar is yellow to whitish in colour, opaque and dull in texture and either powdery or very small grained.
* It is said to have easy digestibility and better nutritive qualities.
* UP is the cradle of the Khandsain industry.
* The boiled juice called the "Rab" is taken out and filled into bags generally made of wool, these bags are placed one over the other and pressure is applied through mannual labour for draining out the molasses.
* When the flow of molasses stops, the bag is emptied into special pits with brick flooring which is covered with a thick layer of the sea weed (Sewar).
* The moistened sea-weed generates heat, creating chemical reactions.
* In 3 days all the mass of molasses is drained out and it becomes white.
* Every alternate day the upper layer or white sugar is removed and the process continued until the entire material is treated.
* The sugar is sun dried and then it becomes ready for market.
* Much of the sugar goes into the molasses and thus the recovery is hardly 5% the khandsari industry was started in UP and has now spread to many states notalogy A.P, MP, Maharashtra, Punjab, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.

==Chewing==

* Though no precise estimate is available about the extent of cane used for chewing and beverage purposes, it easily ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 percent of the total cane production.
* Varieties grown for chewing purpose are infact true officinarums.
* Chewing cane must be attractive in colour, thick easy to peel and split, should be juicy, having more sugar, soft with less fibre and should have less or no wax on the rind surface.
* The rind of the cane should be less thickness and hardness.

==Sugarcane for juice==

* Sugarcane juice is consumed directly.
* Cane for this purpose have higher sucrose, fructose and glucose levels are desirable.
* Also cane with higher extraction and less fibre and non-sugar component in juice and preferred.
* Besides selecting a good variety for choosing or for extraction of juice, other requirement is to ensure good soil so that cane growth is assured and thus higher juice volume.
* Salt affected soils as well as saline water irrigation should be avoided as these would affect juice taste and colour.
* It is desirable to use no or less pesticides.
* Late application of fertilizers, particularly of N, should be avoided as otherwise, there could be more soluble N in juice which is undesirable.
* Effluent water and polluted soils should not be used for growing cane for chewing and juice purposes.

=Sugarcane growing regions=

* Broadly there are two distinct agro-climatic regions of sugarcane cultivation in India, viz., tropical and subtropical.
* However, five agro-climatic zones have been identified mainly for the purpose of varietal development. They are
1. North Western Zone
2. North Central Zone
3. North Eastern Zone,
4. Peninsular Zone
5. Coastal Zone.

==Tropical Sugarcane region==

* The tropical sugarcane region consists of sugarcane agro climatic zone 4 (peninsular zone) and 5(Coastal zone) which includes the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Pondichery and Kerala.
* In the coastal areas of A.P. and Tamil Nadu there are extensive sugarcane areas with high sugarcane productivities.
* Floods, water logging diseases such as red rot are the main problems.
* In the tropical region, sugarcane gets more or less ideal climatic conditions for its growth.
* It is cultivated with better package of practices and higher irrigation levels.
* The growing season is long with more equitable and favourable conditions without serious weather extremes.
* Being a tropical country, the agro-climatic conditions of tropical India favour higher sugarcane and sugar yields.
* The tropical region contributes about 40 per cent to the total cane production in the country.
* The productivities are higher.
* The average cane yields of the major states of the region (Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat) is around 80 tonnes per hectare.
* Maharashtra and the adjoining area of Karnataka, Gujarat and A.P. record higher sugar recoveries.
* Long hours of sunshine, cool nights with clear skies and the latitudinal position of this area are highly favourable for sugar accumulation.
* This is why average recoveries of Maharashtra and Gujarat are highest in the country.
* Moisture stress during the early part of the cane growths mostly during March to June, is an important problem.
* Smut is an important disease affecting sugarcane production in this region particularly in the plateau region.
* In the coastal areas red rot has become a major threat.
* Among the pests, early shoot borer, particularly in the late planted crops, is considerably serious.

==Sub-tropical sugarcane region==

* Around 60-65 per cent of total cane area in the country is in the sub-tropics. U.P, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab comes under this region.
* Extremes of climate is the characteristic feature of this region.
* During April to June, the weather is very hot and dry.
* July to October is rainy season accounting for most of the rainfall from S-W monsoon rains.
* December and January are the very cold months temperature touching sub-zero levels in many places.
* November to March are cool months with clear sky.
* The N-W zone comprising the areas in Haryana, Punjab, Western Rajasthan and Western U.P. has very low temperature in December-January which often cause frost.
* During May and June, the temperatures are extremely high.
* Because of extremes of weather, the active sugarcane growth is restricted to 4-5 months only.
* In Eastern U.P, Bihar, and West Bengal, sugarcane suffers due to floods and water logging during monsoon months.
* Several pests and diseases, particularly red rot and top borer and pyrilla are common and serious.
* The cane yields are lower in the subtropics due to short growing season, moisture stress, more pest and disease problem, floods and water logging and very poor ratoons.
* The average yield of the four major states (U.P, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana) is around 55 tonnes per hectare.
* However, there is considerable potential to be exported.

File:Anemia.jpg

2010-09-10T06:36:17Z

uploaded "[[File:Anemia.jpg]]"

Anemia

2010-09-10T06:09:07Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:09, 10 September 2010
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-	~~'''What Is~~ Anemia~~?'''~~	+	[[image:anemia.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Anemia]]

-	Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells. These cells are the main transporters of oxygen to organs. If red blood cells are also deficient in hemoglobin, then your body isn't getting enough oxygen. Symptoms of anemia -- like fatigue -- occur because organs aren't getting enough ~~oxygen~~.	+	=What Is Anemia?=
		+
		+	Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells. These cells are the main transporters of oxygen to organs. If red blood cells are also deficient in hemoglobin, then your body isn't getting enough oxygen. Symptoms of anemia -- like fatigue -- occur because organs aren't getting enough [[Oxygen]].

	Anemia is the most common blood condition in the U.S. It affects about 3.5 million Americans. Women and people with chronic diseases are at increased risk of anemia. Important factors to remember are:		Anemia is the most common blood condition in the U.S. It affects about 3.5 million Americans. Women and people with chronic diseases are at increased risk of anemia. Important factors to remember are:
Line 10:		Line 12:
	* Seniors also may have a greater risk of developing anemia because of poor diet and other medical conditions.		* Seniors also may have a greater risk of developing anemia because of poor diet and other medical conditions.

-	There are many types of anemia. All are very different in their causes and treatments. Iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type, is very treatable with diet changes and ~~iron~~ supplements. Some forms of anemia -- like the anemia that develops during pregnancy -- are even considered normal. However, some types of anemia may present lifelong health problems.	+	There are many types of anemia. All are very different in their causes and treatments. Iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type, is very treatable with diet changes and [[Iron]] supplements. Some forms of anemia -- like the anemia that develops during pregnancy -- are even considered normal. However, some types of anemia may present lifelong health problems.

	Also called: '''[[Iron]] poor blood'''		Also called: '''[[Iron]] poor blood'''

-	If you have anemia, your blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body. The most common cause of anemia is not having enough iron. Your body needs iron to make hemoglobin. ~~Hemoglobin~~ is an iron-rich ~~protein~~ that gives the red color to blood. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.	+	If you have anemia, your blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body. The most common cause of anemia is not having enough iron. Your body needs iron to make hemoglobin. [[red blood cells\|haemoglobin]]is an iron-rich [[Protein]] that gives the red color to blood. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.

	Your [[Iron]] might be too low because of heavy periods, pregnancy, [[Ulcer]], colon polyps, colon cancer, inherited disorders or a diet that does not have enough iron. You can also get anemia from not getting enough [[Folic acid]] or [[Vitamin : B-12 (Cyanocobalamin)\|vitamin B 12]]. Blood disorders such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, or [[Cancer]] may also lead to anemia.		Your [[Iron]] might be too low because of heavy periods, pregnancy, [[Ulcer]], colon polyps, colon cancer, inherited disorders or a diet that does not have enough iron. You can also get anemia from not getting enough [[Folic acid]] or [[Vitamin : B-12 (Cyanocobalamin)\|vitamin B 12]]. Blood disorders such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, or [[Cancer]] may also lead to anemia.
Line 60:		Line 62:
	Symptoms of anemia may include the following:		Symptoms of anemia may include the following:

-	* Fatigue	+	Fatigue
-		+	weakness
-	* weakness	+	shortness of breath
-		+	light headedness
-	* shortness of breath	+	palpitations (feeling of the heart racing or beating irregularly)
-		+	looking pale
-	* light headedness	+
-		+
-	* palpitations (feeling of the heart racing or beating irregularly)	+
-		+
-	* looking pale	+

	Symptoms of severe anemia may include:		Symptoms of severe anemia may include:

-	* chest pain, angina, or heart attack	+	chest pain, angina, or heart attack
-		+	dizziness
-	* dizziness	+	fainting or passing out
-		+	rapid heart rate
-	* fainting or passing out	+
-		+
-	* rapid heart rate	+

	Some of the signs that may indicate anemia in an individual may include:		Some of the signs that may indicate anemia in an individual may include:

-	* Change in stool color, including black and tarry stools (sticky and foul smelling), maroon-colored, or visibly bloody stools if the anemia is due to blood loss through the gastrointestinal tract.	+	* Change in stool color, including black and tarry stools (sticky and foul smelling), maroon-colored, or visibly bloody stools if the anemia is due to blood loss through the gastrointestinal tract.
-		+	* rapid heart rate
-	* rapid heart rate	+	* low blood pressure
-		+	* rapid breathing
-	* low blood pressure	+	* pale or cold skin
-		+	* yellow skin called [[Jaundice]] if anemia is due to red blood cell breakdown
-	* rapid breathing	+	* heart murmur
-		+	* enlargement of the spleen with certain causes of anemia
-	* pale or cold skin	+

-	* yellow skin called [[Jaundice]] if anemia is due to red blood cell breakdown	+	=Treatment of Anemia=

-	* heart murmur	+	When possible, the cause of the anemia is treated. When the Hb falls dangerously low, eg, < 7 g/dL for patients without cardiopulmonary insufficiency or higher for patients with it, RBC transfusion temporarily increases O2-carrying capacity. RBC transfusion should be reserved for patients

-	* ~~enlargement~~ of ~~the spleen with certain causes~~ of ~~anemia~~	+	* With or at high risk of cardiopulmonary symptoms
		+	* With active, uncontrollable blood loss
		+	* With some form of hypoxic or ischemic end-organ failure (eg, neurologic ischemic symptoms, angina, tachycardia in patients with underlying heart failure or severe COPD)

Safe Running Tips

2010-09-10T02:08:31Z

Stay Safe While Running:

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:08, 10 September 2010
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	=Stay Safe While Running=		=Stay Safe While Running=
		+
		+	[[File:run.jpg\|thumb\|]]
		+	Every runner you should take a few moments and consider their safety while running. Running is generally a safe activity, but there are still perils worth considering and preparing for. For example, running at night, while often pleasent due to lower tempatures and decreased traffic brings with it the added danger of decreased visibility. The weather can pose running safety risks; running in extremely hot or cold weather, for example, requires special precautions, to say nothing of running in inclement weather.
		+
	Do not run without protections - Let's admit it. The worst the weather, the better the challenge (and the satisfaction). A few guidelines to running under the rain include using Vaseline or bandaids to protect the nipples from the wet rubbing shirt; the use of technical clothes that wick away humidity (avoid simple cotton); proper dressing for the actual weather conditions (windproof jackets, gloves, hats, etc.).		Do not run without protections - Let's admit it. The worst the weather, the better the challenge (and the satisfaction). A few guidelines to running under the rain include using Vaseline or bandaids to protect the nipples from the wet rubbing shirt; the use of technical clothes that wick away humidity (avoid simple cotton); proper dressing for the actual weather conditions (windproof jackets, gloves, hats, etc.).

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	Try to talk to the aggressor and look for an escape opportunity - a moment of indecision or distraction on the attacker's part.		Try to talk to the aggressor and look for an escape opportunity - a moment of indecision or distraction on the attacker's part.
	Do not fight or struggle with the attacker unless there is clearly no other way out, especially if you are untrained in self defense		Do not fight or struggle with the attacker unless there is clearly no other way out, especially if you are untrained in self defense
-
-

	=Running in Inclement Weather=		=Running in Inclement Weather=

Safety tips

2010-09-10T02:06:59Z

Safe Running Tips:

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:06, 10 September 2010
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	== [[Air compressor Safety Tips ]] ==		== [[Air compressor Safety Tips ]] ==
	== [[Safe Running Tips ]] ==		== [[Safe Running Tips ]] ==
-	~~[[File:run.jpg\|thumb\|]]~~
-	Every runner you should take a few moments and consider their safety while running. Running is generally a safe activity, but there are still perils worth considering and preparing for. For example, running at night, while often pleasent due to lower tempatures and decreased traffic brings with it the added danger of decreased visibility. The weather can pose running safety risks; running in extremely hot or cold weather, for example, requires special precautions, to say nothing of running in inclement weather.
-

	== Safe Pedestrian Tips ==		== Safe Pedestrian Tips ==

Money

2010-09-10T02:04:33Z

Created page with '*Check expiry on credit cards before you leave on your trip. *Check if credit card limit will be high enough for those fancy hotels. *Photocopy front andback of all cred it car...'

New page

*Check expiry on credit cards before you leave on your trip.

*Check if credit card limit will be high enough for those fancy hotels.

*Photocopy front andback of all cred it cards, debit cards and traveler's cheques and leave the copy in a safe place at home and with a trusted relative whom you can call in the event of stolen or lost so that the cards can be cancelled.

*Memorize those debit card Pin numbers.

*Research local currency rates.

*Plan a daily budget for incidentals.

*Banks often have the best exchange rates. Be wary of currency exchange booths at the airport and rail stations, their rates are often sub-standard. Avoid changing with any stranger on the streets.

*Buy some traveler's cheques and "dont leave home without them".

*Bring a credit card from at least 2 different card companies because one store or hotel only take VISA or Master Card.

*When using the credit card for purchases, it is advantangeous to have the amount in Euromoney or Eurocurrency.

*Every European country has a Tax Refund for tourists. There is a minimum amount of purchase in each store in order to avail of this. It is, therefore, practical to pool all purchases in each store in order to meet the required minimum purchase when a minimum purchase occurs in a particualr store, go to their Tax Refund Form. You will nedd to write the name of the bank, account no,. etc. in this form. Before leaving the country, present this form with the self stamped envelope and the receipts of purchases to Customs who, in turn, will stamp this form (usually after examination of the goods purchased) for clearance. Then, seal the envelope and drop it in the mailbox. You will receive your tax refund either by check through the mail or direct to you bank..

Customs

2010-09-10T01:33:13Z

Created page with '*Make sure you bring your prescription receipts with your prescriptions so you can avoid potential problems with authorities. *Bring along a copy of your bill or expensive items...'

New page

*Make sure you bring your prescription receipts with your prescriptions so you can avoid potential problems with authorities.

*Bring along a copy of your bill or expensive items such as jewelry and cameras as you prove to customs that you purchased the items in your home country.

*Get a pamphlet or check your country's custom rules before purchase of expensive watch or ring.

*Always be polite and respectful.

Baggage Collection

2010-09-10T01:31:53Z

Created page with '*The arrival's hall of the airport will have carousels or conveyor belts that are designated with your flight number. Your bags will be available for collection here. Do not worr...'

New page

*The arrival's hall of the airport will have carousels or conveyor belts that are designated with your flight number. Your bags will be available for collection here. Do not worry if you cannot pick up your bag immediately when you see it. The conveyor belt or carousel will continue to circulate it until you pick it up. Make sure you collect the correct suitcase by checking the baggage receipt number attached to your ticket. Do not hesitate to ask ground staff if you require some help. Trolleys are available within the baggage collection areas of most airports. There many be a small change, usually in local currency.

*When arriving from an international airport, some countries require you to declare any food, plant, wooden or skin articles. Generally, these are inspected by the appropriate officers after you have collected your baggage. Many airports operate a system of 'red' channels and 'green' channel; the red if you have something to declare. If you have nothing to declare, you may still be required to open your bags for inspection. Random baggage inspections are standard procedure at all international airports.

Transfer

2010-09-10T00:53:46Z

Created page with '*This means that you are transferring to another flight to continue your journey. You many have been 'through-checked' at you original point of departure. This means that you wil...'

New page

*This means that you are transferring to another flight to continue your journey. You many have been 'through-checked' at you original point of departure. This means that you will already have your boarding pass for your new flight. In this case, all you have to do is consult the departure boards ot monitors and proceed to the appropriate 'Gate' number for your next flight. If this not the case, you should proceed to the transfer desk in the departure lounge where you will receive your seat allocation and boarding pass for your new flight.

*If you are transferring from an international to a domestic flight you must go through customs and immigration procedures prior to proceeding to the domestic airport.

*Make sure you have all your hand baggage and check your seat and seat pockets for any personal items.

Anemia

2010-09-09T16:51:41Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:51, 9 September 2010
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	There are many types of anemia. All are very different in their causes and treatments. Iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type, is very treatable with diet changes and iron supplements. Some forms of anemia -- like the anemia that develops during pregnancy -- are even considered normal. However, some types of anemia may present lifelong health problems.		There are many types of anemia. All are very different in their causes and treatments. Iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type, is very treatable with diet changes and iron supplements. Some forms of anemia -- like the anemia that develops during pregnancy -- are even considered normal. However, some types of anemia may present lifelong health problems.

-	Also called: '''Iron poor blood'''	+	Also called: '''[[Iron]] poor blood'''

	If you have anemia, your blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body. The most common cause of anemia is not having enough iron. Your body needs iron to make hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that gives the red color to blood. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.		If you have anemia, your blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body. The most common cause of anemia is not having enough iron. Your body needs iron to make hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that gives the red color to blood. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.

-	Your [[Iron]] might be too low because of heavy periods, pregnancy, ~~ulcers~~, colon polyps, colon cancer, inherited disorders or a diet that does not have enough iron. You can also get anemia from not getting enough ~~folic~~ acid or [[Vitamin : B-12 (Cyanocobalamin)\|vitamin B 12]]. Blood disorders such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, or ~~cancer~~ may also lead to anemia.	+	Your [[Iron]] might be too low because of heavy periods, pregnancy, [[Ulcer]], colon polyps, colon cancer, inherited disorders or a diet that does not have enough iron. You can also get anemia from not getting enough [[Folic acid]] or [[Vitamin : B-12 (Cyanocobalamin)\|vitamin B 12]]. Blood disorders such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, or [[Cancer]] may also lead to anemia.

	Anemia can make you feel weak, cold, dizzy and irritable. It is confirmed with a blood test. Treatment depends on the kind of anemia you have.		Anemia can make you feel weak, cold, dizzy and irritable. It is confirmed with a blood test. Treatment depends on the kind of anemia you have.
		+
		+	=Anemia Causes=
		+
		+	Many medical conditions cause anemia. Common causes of anemia include the following:
		+
		+	* '''Anemia from active bleeding'''
		+
		+	Loss of blood through heavy menstrual bleeding or, wounds can cause anemia. Gastrointestinal ulcers or cancers such as cancer of the colon may slowly ooze blood and can also cause anemia.
		+
		+	* '''Iron deficiency anemia''': The bone marrow needs iron to make red blood cells. Iron plays an important role in the proper structure of the hemoglobin molecule. If iron intake is limited or inadequate due to poor dietary intake, anemia may occur as a result. This is called iron deficiency anemia.
		+
		+	* '''Anemia of of chronic disease''': Any long-term medical condition can lead to anemia. The exact mechanism of this process in unknown, but any long-standing and ongoing medical condition such as an infection or a cancer may cause this type of anemia.
		+
		+	* '''Anemia related to kidney disease''': The kidneys release a hormone called the erythropoietin that helps the bone marrow make red blood cells. In people with chronic (long-standing) kidney disease, the production of this hormone is diminished, and this in turn diminishes the production of red blood cells, causing anemia. This is called anemia related to chronic kidney disease.
		+
		+	* '''Anemia related to pregnancy''': Water weight gain during pregnancy dilutes the blood, which may be reflected as anemia.
		+
		+	* '''Anemia related to poor nutrition''': [[Vitamins]] and [[Minerals]] are required to make red blood cells. In addition to iron, vitamin B12 and folate are required for the proper production of hemoglobin. Deficiency in any of these may cause anemia because of inadequate production of red blood cells. Poor dietary intake is an important cause of low folate and low vitamin B12 levels. Strict vegetarians who do not take sufficient vitamins are at risk to develop vitamin B12 deficiency.
		+
		+	* '''Pernicious Anemia''': There also may be a problem in the stomach or the intestines leading to poor absorption of vitamin B12. This may lead to anemia because of vitamin B12 deficiency known as pernicious anemia.
		+
		+	* '''Sickle cell anemia''': In some individuals, the problem may be related to production of abnormal hemoglobin molecules. In this condition the hemoglobin problem is qualitative, or functional. Abnormal hemoglobin molecules may cause problems in the integrity of the red blood cell structure and they may become crescent-shaped (sickle cells). There are different types of sickle call anemia with different severity levels. This is typically hereditary and is more common in those of African, Middle Eastern, and Mediterranean ancestry.
		+
		+	* '''Thalassemia''': this is another group of hemoglobin-related causes of anemia. There are many types of thalassemia, which vary in severity. These are also hereditary, but they cause quantitative hemoglobin abnormalities, meaning an insufficient number of hemoglobin molecules is made.
		+
		+	* '''Alcoholism''': Poor nutrition and deficiencies of [[Vitamins]] and minerals are associated with alcoholism. Alcohol itself may also be toxic to the bone marrow and may slow down the red blood cell production. The combination of these factors may lead to anemia in alcoholics.
		+
		+	* '''Bone marrow-related anemia''': Anemia may be related to diseases involving the bone marrow. Some blood cancers such as leukemia or lymphomas can alter the production of red blood cells and result in anemia. Other processes may be related to a [[Cancer]] from another organ spreading to the bone marrow.
		+
		+	* '''Aplastic anemia''': Occasionally some viral infections may severely affect the bone marrow and diminish production of all blood cells. Chemotherapy (cancer [[Medications]]) and some other medications may pose the same problems.
		+
		+	* '''Hemolytic anemia''': The normal red blood cell shape is important for its function. Hemolytic anemia is a type of anemia in which the red blood cells rupture (known as hemolysis) and become dysfunctional. This could happen due to a variety of reasons. Some forms of hemolytic anemia can be hereditary with constant destruction and rapid reproduction of red blood cells. This destruction may also happen to normal red blood cells in certain conditions, for example, with abnormal heart valves damaging the blood cells.
		+
		+	* Other less common causes of anemia include medication side effects, [[Thyroid]] problems, [[Cancer]], liver [[Disease]], other genetic disorders, lead poisoning, [[AIDS]], and bleeding disorders. It is noteworthy that there are many other potential causes of [[Anemia]] that are not included in this list and these are only some of the more common and important ones.
		+
		+	=Symptoms=
		+
		+	Because a low red blood cell count decreases [[Oxygen]] delivery to every tissue in the body, anemia may cause many signs and symptoms. It can also make almost any other underlying medical condition worse. If anemia is mild, it may not cause any symptoms. If anemia is slowly ongoing (chronic), the body may adapt and compensate for the change; in this case there may not be any symptoms until the anemia becomes more severe.
		+
		+	Symptoms of anemia may include the following:
		+
		+	* Fatigue
		+
		+	* weakness
		+
		+	* shortness of breath
		+
		+	* light headedness
		+
		+	* palpitations (feeling of the heart racing or beating irregularly)
		+
		+	* looking pale
		+
		+	Symptoms of severe anemia may include:
		+
		+	* chest pain, angina, or heart attack
		+
		+	* dizziness
		+
		+	* fainting or passing out
		+
		+	* rapid heart rate
		+
		+	Some of the signs that may indicate anemia in an individual may include:
		+
		+	* Change in stool color, including black and tarry stools (sticky and foul smelling), maroon-colored, or visibly bloody stools if the anemia is due to blood loss through the gastrointestinal tract.
		+
		+	* rapid heart rate
		+
		+	* low blood pressure
		+
		+	* rapid breathing
		+
		+	* pale or cold skin
		+
		+	* yellow skin called [[Jaundice]] if anemia is due to red blood cell breakdown
		+
		+	* heart murmur
		+
		+	* enlargement of the spleen with certain causes of anemia

Jaundice

2010-09-09T16:31:01Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:31, 9 September 2010
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	'''High levels of bilirubin''' — usually above 25 mg — can cause deafness, cerebral palsy, or other forms of brain damage in some babies. In less common cases, jaundice may indicate the presence of another condition, such as an infection or a thyroid problem. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that all infants should be examined for jaundice within a few days of birth.		'''High levels of bilirubin''' — usually above 25 mg — can cause deafness, cerebral palsy, or other forms of brain damage in some babies. In less common cases, jaundice may indicate the presence of another condition, such as an infection or a thyroid problem. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that all infants should be examined for jaundice within a few days of birth.

-	~~'''~~Types of Jaundice~~'''~~	+	=Types of Jaundice=

	The most common types of jaundice are:		The most common types of jaundice are:
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	'''Breastfeeding jaundice''': jaundice can occur when a breastfeeding baby is not getting enough breast milk because of difficulty with breastfeeding or because the mother's milk isn’t in yet. This is not caused by a problem with the breast milk itself, but by the baby not getting enough to drink.		'''Breastfeeding jaundice''': jaundice can occur when a breastfeeding baby is not getting enough breast milk because of difficulty with breastfeeding or because the mother's milk isn’t in yet. This is not caused by a problem with the breast milk itself, but by the baby not getting enough to drink.

-	~~'''~~Symptoms of Jaundice~~'''~~	+	=Symptoms of Jaundice=

	Following are the major jaundice symptoms:		Following are the major jaundice symptoms:

-	1. Extreme weakness	+	Extreme weakness
-	2. Headache and ~~fever~~	+	Headache and [[Fever]]
-	3. Loss of appetite	+	Loss of appetite
-	4. Severe constipation	+	Severe constipation
-	5. Nausea	+	Nausea
-	6. Yellow discoloration of the eyes, tongue, skin, and urine	+	Yellow discoloration of the eyes, tongue, skin, and urine
-	7. Dull pain in the liver region	+	Dull pain in the liver region

	'''Causes of Jaundice'''		'''Causes of Jaundice'''
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	1. Obstruction of the bile ducts		1. Obstruction of the bile ducts
		+
	2. Haemolytic anaemia		2. Haemolytic anaemia
-	~~3. certain diseases affecting the liver such as typhoid, malaria, yellow fever, and tuberculosis~~

-	~~'''~~Natural Home Remedies for Jaundice~~'''~~	+	3. certain diseases affecting the liver such as typhoid, [[Malaria]], yellow fever, and tuberculosis
		+
		+	=Natural Home Remedies for Jaundice=

	Following are some of the effective home remedies for jaundice:		Following are some of the effective home remedies for jaundice:

	1. The green leaves of radish should be pounded and their juice extracted through cloth. Half a liter of this juice should he taken daily by an adult patient. It induces a healthy appetite and proper evacuation of bowels, and this result in gradual decrease of the trouble. In most cases, complete cure can be ensured within 8 or 10 days.		1. The green leaves of radish should be pounded and their juice extracted through cloth. Half a liter of this juice should he taken daily by an adult patient. It induces a healthy appetite and proper evacuation of bowels, and this result in gradual decrease of the trouble. In most cases, complete cure can be ensured within 8 or 10 days.
-	2. Take a glass of fresh ~~tomato~~ juice, mixed with a pinch of ~~salt~~ and pepper early in the morning. It is an effective remedy for jaundice.	+	2. Take a glass of fresh [[Tomato]] juice, mixed with a pinch of [[Salt]] and pepper early in the morning. It is an effective remedy for jaundice.
	3. The juice extracted from the green leaves of pigeon pea should be taken in doses of 60 ml daily. It is an effective home remedy for jaundice.		3. The juice extracted from the green leaves of pigeon pea should be taken in doses of 60 ml daily. It is an effective home remedy for jaundice.
-	4. Soak 8 kernels of ~~almonds~~, 2 dried dates, and 5 small ~~cardamoms~~ overnight in ~~water~~. The outer coating of the ~~almond~~ kernels and the inner seeds of dried dates should be removed the next morning and the whole material should be rubbed into a fine paste. Then, 50 grams of sugar and an equal amount of butter should be mixed in it and the patient should lick this mixture.	+	4. Soak 8 kernels of [[Almond]], 2 dried dates, and 5 small [[Cardamom]] overnight in [[Water]]. The outer coating of the [[Almond]] kernels and the inner seeds of dried dates should be removed the next morning and the whole material should be rubbed into a fine paste. Then, 50 grams of sugar and an equal amount of butter should be mixed in it and the patient should lick this mixture.
-	5. Take 1 glass of ~~sugarcane~~ juice, mixed with the juice of half a ~~lime~~, and taken twice daily. It is very effective treatment for jaundice however it must be clean and preferably prepared at home.	+	5. Take 1 glass of [[Sugarcane]] juice, mixed with the juice of half a [[Lime]], and taken twice daily. It is very effective treatment for jaundice however it must be clean and preferably prepared at home.
-	6. You can also take 20 ml of ~~lemon~~ juice mixed with water several times a day. This will protect the damaged liver cells.	+	6. You can also take 20 ml of [[Lemon juice]] mixed with water several times a day. This will protect the damaged liver cells.
-	7. Boil 1 cup of ~~barley~~ in 3 liters of water and simmered for 3 hours. Drink it several times during the day. It is also an effective home remedy for jaundice.	+	7. Boil 1 cup of [[Barley]] in 3 liters of water and simmered for 3 hours. Drink it several times during the day. It is also an effective home remedy for jaundice.

-	~~'''~~Jaundice Treatment and Advice~~'''~~	+	=Jaundice Treatment and Advice=

	1. Take moderate exercise, fresh air baths, and adequate rest		1. Take moderate exercise, fresh air baths, and adequate rest
-	2. Take a simple light ~~carbohydrate~~ diet with exclusion of fats	+	2. Take a simple light [[Carbohydrates]] diet with exclusion of fats.
	3. Take juice fast for a week, and rest until the acute symptoms of the disease subside. After the juice fast, adopt an all-fruit diet for a further three to five days, taking three meals a day of fresh Juicy fruits at five-hourly intervals.		3. Take juice fast for a week, and rest until the acute symptoms of the disease subside. After the juice fast, adopt an all-fruit diet for a further three to five days, taking three meals a day of fresh Juicy fruits at five-hourly intervals.

-	~~'''~~Herbal Remedies for Jaundice~~'''~~	+	=Herbal Remedies for Jaundice=

	The herb jaundice berry (Berberis vultaris) is very useful in jaundice. The pulverized bark should be given several times a day in doses of one-fourth of a teaspoon in the treatment of this disease, or the fluid extract should be given 2-4 ml doses.		The herb jaundice berry (Berberis vultaris) is very useful in jaundice. The pulverized bark should be given several times a day in doses of one-fourth of a teaspoon in the treatment of this disease, or the fluid extract should be given 2-4 ml doses.

User:Laundrylist

2010-09-09T15:09:58Z

New user account

Transit

2010-09-09T10:12:06Z

Created page with '* On international flights, arrival documents may be distributed by the airline cabin crew. These must be completed by all the passengers disembarking at the next port and handed...'

New page

* On international flights, arrival documents may be distributed by the airline cabin crew. These must be completed by all the passengers disembarking at the next port and handed to passport control officials on arival.

* At stop prior to your distination you are 'in transit'. If you visit the terminal you will be handed a transit card as you disembark. Always keep your travel documents (including your boarding pass) with you at the transit stops.

Take off / Descent

2010-09-09T09:56:48Z

Created page with '*The only physical sensation you are likely to feel could be your ears popping as the cabin pressure is adjusted to altitude during take-off and descent. This is not harmful and ...'

New page

*The only physical sensation you are likely to feel could be your ears popping as the cabin pressure is adjusted to altitude during take-off and descent. This is not harmful and leaves no after-effects, but if you are uncomfortable, chewing on a sweet such as toffee will help.

Setting in

2010-09-09T09:56:42Z

Created page with '*Once you are on board the aircarft the cabin crew will direct you to your seat. You must obey the 'NO Smoking' and 'Fasten Seat Belt' signs and you are advised to wear your seat...'

New page

*Once you are on board the aircarft the cabin crew will direct you to your seat. You must obey the 'NO Smoking' and 'Fasten Seat Belt' signs and you are advised to wear your seat belt loosely whenever you're not moving about the cabin.

Travel Guide

2010-09-09T09:48:05Z

ON BOARD:

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:48, 9 September 2010
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	===== [[Boarding Calls]] =====		===== [[Boarding Calls]] =====
		+
		+	==== ON BOARD ====
		+
		+	===== [[Setting in]] =====
		+
		+	===== [[Take off / Descent]] =====
		+
		+	==== IMMIGRATION AND CUSTOMS ====
		+
		+	===== [[Transit]] =====
		+
		+	===== [[Transfer]] =====
		+
		+	===== [[Baggage Collection]] =====
		+
		+	===== [[Customs]] =====
		+
		+	===== [[Money]] =====

Boarding Calls

2010-09-09T09:40:11Z

Created page with '* Many airports do not make boarding calls over public address systems, so watch the departure boards or monitors to make sure you are at the departure lounge in time to board. ...'

New page

* Many airports do not make boarding calls over public address systems, so watch the departure boards or monitors to make sure you are at the departure lounge in time to board. Your flight will be indicated as departing from a "Gate" number. The location of this will be clearly signposted. Be aware of your flight number as well as the destination city.

Duty-Free Shopping

2010-09-09T09:27:32Z

Created page with '*Duty free shopping is available to passengers traveling internationally only. Most airports have extensive duty-free shopping facilities, both prior to and after the immegration...'

New page

*Duty free shopping is available to passengers traveling internationally only. Most airports have extensive duty-free shopping facilities, both prior to and after the immegration and security procedures. Make sure you are aware of the duty-free allowances for the country you are traveling to as goods carried in excess of limits may be subject to charges or confiscation by customs officers. A range of duty-free items and gifts is also available for sale on board international flights.

Immigration and Security

2010-09-09T09:25:47Z

Created page with '*At the international airports yuo need to pass through immigration, customs and security procedures prior toreaching your departure lounge. Allow plenty of time to complete thes...'

New page

*At the international airports yuo need to pass through immigration, customs and security procedures prior toreaching your departure lounge. Allow plenty of time to complete these formalties. You will need to have your ticket folder, boarding oass and passport ready. In most countreis you will require a completed departure card with details such as your passport number, home address, flight number and destination. The security metal detectors used metal detectors used for the hand baggage will not spoil photographic films.

Checking in

2010-09-09T09:25:30Z

Created page with '* At the check-in counter you'll receive your boarding pass, baggage receipts and seat allocation. It may be necessary to pay a departure tax. Ask the check-in counter about this...'

New page

* At the check-in counter you'll receive your boarding pass, baggage receipts and seat allocation. It may be necessary to pay a departure tax. Ask the check-in counter about this. (Try to find out about departure tax requirements in advance as in most cases these taxes can only be paid in cash, in the currency of the country you are eparting from).

Domestic

2010-09-09T09:04:57Z

Created page with '* You must have completed baggage check-in and seat allocation at least 1 hour prior to departure time.'

New page

* You must have completed baggage check-in and seat allocation at least 1 hour prior to departure time.

Getting there

2010-09-09T09:04:10Z

Created page with '*On the day of departure, allow plenty of time to check if you have all your documents with you and get to the airport.'

New page

*On the day of departure, allow plenty of time to check if you have all your documents with you and get to the airport.

International

2010-09-09T09:04:04Z

Created page with '* Generally, paasengers should check in at least 2 hrs before departure time.'

New page

* Generally, paasengers should check in at least 2 hrs before departure time.

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:47, 10 September 2010
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	==What is Rainwater Harvesting?==		==What is Rainwater Harvesting?==

-	'''Rainwater harvesting''' is the accumulating and storing, of rainwater. It has been used to provide drinking '''[[water]]''', water for livestock, water for '''[[irrigation]]''' or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared areas of ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source. Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater can be of good quality and may not require treatment before consumption. Although some rooftop materials may produce rainwater that is harmful to human [[Health_tips\|'''health''']], it can be useful in flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the garden and washing cars; these uses alone halve the amount of mains water used by a typical home. Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200 mm (7.9 in) per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992).	+	'''Rainwater harvesting''' is the accumulating and storing, of rainwater. {{Tip\|It has been used to provide drinking '''[[water]]''', water for livestock, water for '''[[irrigation]]''' or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared areas of ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source.}} Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater can be of good quality and may not require treatment before consumption. {{Tip\|Although some rooftop materials may produce rainwater that is harmful to human [[Health_tips\|'''health''']], it can be useful in flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the garden and washing cars; these uses alone halve the amount of mains water used by a typical home.}} Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200 mm (7.9 in) per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992).

	There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater ranging from very simple to the complex industrial systems. Generally, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or from a roof. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall (i.e annual precipitation (mm per annum) x square meter of catchment area = litres per annum yield) ... a 200 square meter roof catchment catching 1,000mm PA yields 200 kLPA.		There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater ranging from very simple to the complex industrial systems. Generally, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or from a roof. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall (i.e annual precipitation (mm per annum) x square meter of catchment area = litres per annum yield) ... a 200 square meter roof catchment catching 1,000mm PA yields 200 kLPA.
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	'''Ground catchments systems''' channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage. Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other sources of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than individual families. If properly designed, ground catchment systems can collect large quantities of rainwater.		'''Ground catchments systems''' channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage. Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other sources of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than individual families. If properly designed, ground catchment systems can collect large quantities of rainwater.

-	Rainwater harvesting systems channel that falls on to a roof into storage via a system of gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the system hygienic.	+	{{Tip\|Rainwater harvesting systems channel that falls on to a roof into storage via a system of gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the system hygienic.}}

	[[File:Simple_Diagram_to_show_Rainwater_Harvesting.png\|300px\|thumb\|right\|A simple diagram illustrating how groundwater is extracted.]]		[[File:Simple_Diagram_to_show_Rainwater_Harvesting.png\|300px\|thumb\|right\|A simple diagram illustrating how groundwater is extracted.]]
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	==[[Subsurface dyke]]==		==[[Subsurface dyke]]==

-	A '''subsurface dyke''' is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of '''[[groundwater]]''', thereby raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.	+	{{Tip\|A '''subsurface dyke''' is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of '''[[groundwater]]''', thereby raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.}}

	The subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala [[Agriculture\|'''Agricultural''']] University with the support of ICAR, has become an effective method for ground water conservation by means of rain water harvesting technologies. The sub-surface dyke has demonstrated that it is a feasible method for conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of the Kerala state of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater harvesting system in that region.		The subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala [[Agriculture\|'''Agricultural''']] University with the support of ICAR, has become an effective method for ground water conservation by means of rain water harvesting technologies. The sub-surface dyke has demonstrated that it is a feasible method for conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of the Kerala state of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater harvesting system in that region.
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	==[[Groundwater_recharge\|'''Groundwater recharge''']]==		==[[Groundwater_recharge\|'''Groundwater recharge''']]==

-	Rainwater may also be used for '''groundwater recharge''', where the runoff on the ground is collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater. In the US, rooftop rainwater is collected and stored in sump. In India this includes Bawdis and johads, or ponds which collect the run-off from small streams in wide area.	+	{{Tip\|Rainwater may also be used for '''groundwater recharge''', where the runoff on the ground is collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater.}} In the US, rooftop rainwater is collected and stored in sump. In India this includes Bawdis and johads, or ponds which collect the run-off from small streams in wide area.

	In India, reservoirs called tankas were used to store water; typically they were shallow with mud walls. Ancient tankas still exist in some places.		In India, reservoirs called tankas were used to store water; typically they were shallow with mud walls. Ancient tankas still exist in some places.